In the tree are listed in putative language groups all the Oceanic languages and dialects (and
occasionally larger isogloss-defined regions, e.g. Western Viti Levu) that are referred to in
this work. This list is for quick reference only: the listing in language groups sometimes
does rough justice to complexities that the sources describe, so the list should not be treated
as authoritative.
The higher-order groups are those described in §1.3.3. Lower-order groups were
originally drawn from the classification in Lynch et al. (2002:877–890), but have been
considerably revised on the basis of Blust (2021) on the Admiralties; Ross (2018) on
Western Oceanic; Holzknecht (1989) on the Markham; Ross (1997) on Central Papuan;
Pawley (2011c) on Guadalcanal-Nggelic; Lichtenberk (2010) on Malaita-Makira; Lackey & Boerger (2021)
on Temotu; Lynch (1999, 2000) on Southern Oceanic; Clark (1985), Lynch & Crowley (2001),
Tryon (2010) and François et al. (2015) on Vanuatu; François (n.d.)[1] on
the Torres and Banks Islands; Lynch (2016a) on Malakula; Bender et al. (2003) on
Micronesian; Geraghty (1983) on Central Pacific and Fijian; and Pawley (1966) and
Wilson (2014, 2018) on Polynesian.
Putative linkages (§1.4.3.2) are labelled ‘linkage’. Other groupings (§1.4.3.3) are left
unlabelled.
[1] Our thanks to Alexandre François, who kindly prepared this Torres-Banks phylogeny for us.
Espiritu Santo and Malakula
The sources listed above almost all subgroup the languages of their area on the basis of the
comparative method. An exception is the island of Espiritu Santo in Vanuatu. There is broad
agreement on Vanuatu subgrouping, other than for the languages of the larger islands of
Espiritu Santo and Malakula, where there are disagreements between sources. But most
sources for Santo offer at most regional groupings, with no evidence of genealogical status.
Only Clark (1985) attempts to apply the comparative method to the subgrouping of
Vanuatu’s languages, on the basis of the limited data available at the time. His grouping of
the languages of Espiritu Santo is used here, with one exception. Clark places Araki in a
group with Tangoa, Kiai and Akei, but more recent data collection and analysis by François (2002)
places it with the other islands off the south coast of Espiritu Santo. We rely on
François et al. (2015) for Vanuatu language names.
Malakula is probably the linguistically most complex island in Vanuatu, with apparently
several linkages that it is difficult (and perhaps unwarranted) to tease apart. Here we follow
Lynch (2016), because it is the most recent source, and one that carefully employs the
comparative method. Lynch himself, however, is tentative about his subgrouping.