Proto Oceanic speaking communities subsisted on what they could grow
and gather and what they could glean from the reef and sea.1 Through their dependence on fishing,
the inhabitants would have amassed knowledge of the environments
favoured by particular fish, and awareness of fish habits as they
related to such things as season of the year, the lunar and diurnal
cycle, tidal movements, winds and currents. The times of certain fish to
be fat, to be abundant, and to aggregate in a certain spot for spawning
or feeding would have been marked.
This chapter deals mainly with the names of fishes. Paul Geraghty (1994) and Robin Hooper (1994) have provided a substantial
starting point with their work on reconstructing fish names for Proto
Central Pacific and Proto Polynesian respectively. Their data and
lower-level reconstructions are reproduced here when included in a
higher level reconstruction. Otherwise I simply record the existence of
a PCP or PPn reconstruction.
In most Oceanic languages the lexicon of fish names is the largest of
all faunal fields. The lists of local fish names available to me include
almost 300 items for Mbunai Titan in the Admiralties (Akimichi & Sakiyama
1991), over 400 for both Marovo in the NW Solomons (Hviding 1996), and Wayan Fijian (Pawley & Sayaba 2003), 250
for Kapingamarangi in Polynesia (Lieber
1994) and around 400 for Satawalese in Micronesia (Akimichi & Sauchomal
1982). The evidence is overwhelming that knowledge of fish is, or
has been until the breakdown of traditional lifestyles, extremely
detailed, and one not restricted to a small group of people, but
widespread among the majority of Oceanic communities.
A preliminary question that arises is: Do varieties of fishes in the
tropical Pacific diminish in number the further one moves east from the
major land masses? From linguistic evidence alone it appears that the
major families continue to be represented throughout the region, but the
number of genera and species diminishes. The greatest number of families
noted in a wordlist available to me is from one of the more remote
locations.2
Davis’s (1999) listing for Chuuk records 71 of
the 78 families included in my survey.3Leach & Davidson (2000) have considered the
question from an archaeological perspective. From fish remains
identified from 24 different island groups in the tropical Pacific they
list 48 families that were taken in any quantity by prehistoric people
(p.414). Although they note signs of regional specialisation, they write
that this ‘cannot be explained by changes in natural abundance of fish
types from one place to another’ but is due rather to aspects of human
behaviour (p.416). Thus it should be possible to reconstruct terms to at
least the taxonomic level of family from the full range of linguistic
subgroups including Micronesia and Polynesia, notwithstanding that the
range of environment declines. This is in contrast to the land-based
flora and fauna.
Although I have used western taxonomy as the basis of my
classification, it should not be assumed that all Oceanic peoples used a
similar system of organization. As an example, Edvard Hviding describes
the system used by the people of the Marovo Lagoon, on the island of New
Georgia, western Solomons. He writes:
Marovo fish taxonomy has a structure that differs considerably from
Linnaean or western scientific taxonomy. For instance, a number of
Marovo fish taxa are highly general “lump” categories that cover a
considerable number of Linnaean species under one name. The temi
kepe (etymology uncertain) covers, without further specification,
all (in western terms) ‘butterflyfish’ and ‘coralfish’, as well as any
number of similar small, colorful reef fish with high and flat bodies.
On the other hand, one Linnaean species may be subdivided in Marovo into
a great number of named subtypes. One example is the skipjack tuna or
makasi, which in Marovo has more than a dozen specific names that refer
to growth stages, colorings, and more. Important food species are often
finely subdivided in such a manner, in three-to-four-level taxonomic
structures, while insignificant fishes, such as the small reef species
just mentioned, are more commonly “lumped”. This does not imply that
Marovo fishers do not generally and readily distinguish between similar
looking fish species. They have names for at least four hundred Marovo
“species”, and experienced people can easily single out and identify by
name closely related fishes that differ only very subtly in color or
general appearance. For example, at least twelve types of medium-sized
parrotfish (no generic term in Marovo) are classified and named, as well
as more than seventeen ‘trevallies’ [Carangids: mara] and at
least twenty ‘groupers’ [Serranids: pajara] (Hviding 1996:192-193).
Primary lexemes can denote a fish at the species, the genus or the
family level, and occasionally, as with sharks and rays, suborders or
even orders. Particular species are more likely to be separately named
if they are distinctive in appearance, like the bump-headed parrotfish,
or valued food, like the great barracuda. At the species level or lower,
names are more likely to be binomial. Some may be multimorphemic,
reflecting attributes such as similarity of appearance, habit (schooling
or not), environment (e.g. bottom-dwellers, pelagic, fresh-water,
estuarine, reef or deep sea dwellers), whether diurnal or nocturnal, and
nastiness (poisonous to eat, stingers). Distinctive appearance may be
reflected, with terms for head, nose, eye, spikes, filaments, similarity
to sail or palm leaf and so on being incorporated into the name. In
Polynesian languages some colour terms, particularly reflexes of PPn
*tea ‘white’, *quli ‘black’, *kefu
‘reddish-brown’, *kula ‘red’ and *mea ‘reddish’, are
quite common. Wayan Fijian has kati ni tanive, lit. ‘biter of
sardines’ for a medium sized trevally, after its feeding habits, while a
scorpionfish whose poisonous spines can inflict severe pain is called
taŋitaŋi ga ua, lit. ‘cry until high tide’. Niuean calls a
species of parrotfish mohe-aho lit. ‘sleep by day’. Valued fish
and fish whose appearance changes with age will often have names for
particular growth stages. In Tonga, for instance, a species of mullet
(Valamugil cunnesius) has six named stages, ranging from
smallest to largest, teʔevela, teʔekona,
teʔefō, ʔunomoa, kanahe, and kanahe
fau.
A common difficulty in reconstructing the semantic range of a term is
that although apparent cognate names may exist in, say, the Admiralties,
the Solomons and Polynesia, the fishes bearing these names may belong to
different species or genera. While some species are widespread, others
are highly restricted in their geographic range, and the name of a fish
in the Admiralties may well be given elsewhere to another species within
the same family, or to an unrelated fish that resembles it in some
aspect. As well, the western scientific taxonomy of fishes is subject to
continuing revision and occasional name replacement. These are problems
both for the wordlist compiler in identifying a fish by its Linnaean
classification in addition to its common name, and for ourselves in
tracing the somewhat fluid species association that a cognate set may
produce.
The cognate sets that follow are grouped in terms of Linnaean
families and high order groupings. The ordering of groups substantially
follows that of Ian Munro (1967) in his encyclopaedic volume
The Fishes of New Guinea. However, since then there have been
numerous revisions to fish taxonomy. In particular, I have been guided
by the FishBase website (Froese
& Pauly 2010) in tracing synonyms and revised scientific
classification. Dictionary identifications have been retained, with any
revision of terminology added in square brackets.
For descriptions of fish appearance and behaviour I have also relied
heavily on Munro (1967) and Allen & Swainston (1993).
Terms for fish parts are included in this chapter. Marine mammals
have been included in chapter 5.
It is likely that the POc term *ikan had both a narrow and a
broad sense. The narrow sense applied to ‘typical’ fish, while the broad
sense included some or all of the following: whales, dolphins, dugongs,
eels, turtles, cephalopods and rays. Shellfish are generally excluded in
daughter languages. See chapter 8 for a fuller discussion.
In this section and in §5 on
rays, I am dealing with sub-orders rather than families. Kailola (1987)
lists twelve shark families, the best-known probably being
Carcharhinidae, the largest, with tiger sharks, black-tip and white-tip
sharks among its species, and Sphyrnidae, hammerheads.
Most sharks inhabit shallow coastal waters around reefs. A number of
species are regarded as dangerous, but in parts of the southeast
Solomons sharks are thought to be the ghosts of men and are considered
sacred. I have reconstructed one possible generic term,
*bakewa, its cognates widespread, but undergoing a change of
meaning in Central Pacific. Reflexes of *maŋewa have replaced
*bakewa as the generic term in Polynesia. In Motu and Fiji the
reflex of a POc term for shark has come to be applied instead to the
remora or sucker fish which attaches itself to sharks and other large
sea creatures (§65). This is the
case with Motu maɣoa and PCP *bakewa. Tolai
gul can be used to refer to either a ‘k.o. striped shark (tiger
shark?)’ or ‘the pilotfish Naucrates ductor’, a fish which also
stays in the close vicinity of sharks.
Figure 2.1:Carcharodon carcharias, great white shark
Proto Oceanic speakers undoubtedly distinguished many different
species of sharks by name, as contemporary Oceanic speech communities
do, but reconstructed terms have not been clearly identified with
particular species at a level higher than Proto Central Pacific.
Cognates in the following set from the Admiralties, Papuan Tip, SE
Solomons and Micronesia provide the strongest evidence for
*bakewa as the generic term for ‘shark’ in POc.
In Polynesian languages, reflexes of PPn *pakewa usually
refer to a trevally (belonging to the same family as Naucrates
ductor, the pilot fish), while reflexes of PPn *maŋō are
the generic term for shark.
The next reconstruction, POc *maŋewa ‘shark’, appears to be
a variant of *bakewa in which the stops are replaced by nasals.
It is impossible to know how such a variant might have arisen, but the
probability of two formally parallel homonymous trisyllables arising by
chance is extremely low (Nichols
1996:50-51).
The reconstruction *maŋewa assumes that segment coalescence
has occurred in both Motu and the SES languages. Motu maɣoa
reflects coalescence of *-ew- as -o-, SES
maŋeo coalescence of *-wa as -o. Note that a
similar change occurred in NCV and Micronesian reflexes of
*bakewa.
Geraghty (p. 143) also lists PCP *qaso ‘k.o. large shark,
Carcharhinus sp.’ If the Taiof and Halia terms below are
cognate, then POc *kaso(r,R) is reconstructable.
‘brown man-eating shark, plentiful around Nissan and associated
with sorcery’
Languages frequently use binomial terms to refer to particular shark
species, although sometimes the generic first element is regarded as
optional. Fijian (unspecified) uses gio4 +
modifier, e.g, gio uvi ‘Carcharhinus plumbeus, sandbar
shark’, gio daniva ‘Galeo cerdo, tiger shark’, gio
uluvai ‘hammerhead shark’ (Geraghty pers. comm.). Modifiers tend to
develop independently in different languages, although elements recur.
Two of the Fijian modifiers, uvi and daniva, are found
also in Polynesian terms, PPn *nai-ufi ‘k.o. large shark,
probably tiger or grey reef shark’ and PPn *tanifa ‘tiger
shark’. The latter is remarkably a reflex of POc *tanipa
‘sardine’ (§7), presumably
because of similar iridescent zigzag vertical lines on both tiger sharks
and sardines (Geraghty 1994:
p. 143).
Probably because of similar wavy iridescent lines on the sides of
Spanish mackerel, also a large predatory fish, reflexes of POc
*taŋiRi ‘Spanish mackerel’ (§57) have been incorporated into
names for a kind of shark in Muyuw (PT) and Marovo (MM).
‘Galeocerdo cuvier, tiger shark, the most dangerous shark
in Marovo’
An obviously descriptive name, PCP *mata qi taliŋa ‘eyes of
ears’ is used in Central Pacific languages to refer to the hammerhead
shark, although the term has been lost in Eastern Polynesian. In Molima
(PT), this shark is referred to as mala balabala, literally
‘eyes crosswise’, while in Gela (SES) it is baɣea papala vohe
‘paddle-handle shark’.
Stingrays and eagle rays inhabit sandy bottoms in the vicinity of
coral reefs, and are common in estuaries where there is abundant mud.
Eagle rays are so named because of their wide flaps and ability to leap
from the water. Manta rays rank among the largest known fishes. They are
specialised in having largely abandoned the bottom-living habit and
usually swim near the surface, often leaping from the water. Manta rays
inhabit open ocean, and are seldom seen near shore.
Figure 2.2:Aetobatus narinari, spotted eagle ray
Reflexes of POc *paRi are numerous and widespread. It seems
that the POc term had both a generic and a specific sense. Although most
of the reflexes listed below are glossed ‘stingray’, *paRi is
used as the first element in compound terms for rays other than
stingrays (see *paRi-manuk below). The same pattern occurs in
Marovo (NW Solomonic) where tape is the term both for stingrays
and other rays in general, giving rise to compounds like tape
kurukuru ’spotted eagle ray, Aetobatus narinari`.
Oceanic languages usually distinguish several taxa, typically
binomials, *paRi + modifier.
Banks Islands languages (North Vanuatu) support Proto Banks *vaRi
mala ‘eagle ray’, where the term for ‘hawk’ rather than ‘bird’ is
the modifier (Alexandre François, pers. comm.).
Reflexes of POc *Ropok ‘to fly’ are sometimes used in
compounds to distinguish rays that leap from the water. Examples are
Nakanai (MM) kova lovo-lovo ‘ray with two wings’ (kova
‘stingray’) and Gela (SES) vali-lovo ‘eagle ray, manta ray,
devil ray’.
Lower level reconstructions include PCP *vai bekʷa, PPn
fai peka ‘Aetobatus narinari, spotted eagle ray’ (PCP
*bekʷa ‘bat’) (Geraghty
1994: p. 144); PPn fai kili ‘sandpaper ray’ (probably
Himantura granulata, Dasyatidae) (*kili ‘file’); and PNPn
fāfā-lua ‘Manta birostris. manta ray’ (lit. ‘full of
holes’, presumably a description of the pitted appearance of the skin),
the latter two from Hooper (1994: p. 197).
6.
Bonefishes (Albulidae) and tarpons (Elopidae, formerly Megalopidae)⇫
Bonefishes are coastal fishes, moderately sized and brilliantly
silver, which often congregate in large schools. They are generally
valued as food, but have many fine bones. Tarpons are also moderately
large coastal game fishes which ascend rivers in search of food. The
flesh is tough, with numerous fine bones. They are renowned as active
strong fighters capable of swift movement, leaping ability and great
endurance (Munro 1967: p.41).
The two families are treated together because the second
reconstruction below, POc *pu-pulan, is based on cognates
referring to both and seems a broader term than POc *kuRo,
bonefishes and tarpons are similar in colour and habitat, and both are
marked by the presence of many fine bones.
7.
Sardines and herrings (Clupeidae) and anchovies (Engraulidae)⇫
Figure 2.3:Spratelloides delicatulus, small round herring
Sardines and herrings are small migratory fishes which congregate in
enormous shoals in shallow coastal waters. Flesh is oily but tasty (Munro 1967: p.50). They are taken in
nets in Oceanic communities.
Anchovies also live in large schools in coastal waters and estuaries.
They have a long slender maxillary (upper jaw) and protruding snout, and
most are silvery or have a bright silvery lateral band. Some species
migrate seasonally, and the schools come close inshore where they can be
captured with seines (Munro 1967:
p.43).
In the cognate sets which follow, terms show some crossover of
meaning between sardines and anchovies. This is most likely due to
looseness of definition of the English terms by the wordlist compilers,
but it is possible that the two families are regarded as sufficiently
similar in some languages for one term to cover both. The fact that we
can reconstruct six POc terms indicates that speakers differentiated
between the referents in some regard.
In the next cognate set, there is reasonable consistency of meaning
as far east as Fiji, but Polynesian reflexes undergo a striking change
of meaning, referring to a kind of shark with similar markings to
sardines (see p.33). Polynesian terms for sardine, together with a
number of Fijian terms, have the same form minus the first syllable.
This family consists of a single species, Chanos chanos.
Fishes grow to around a metre in length, are finely scaled, silvery and
toothless. They inhabit both open sea and brackish water and can ascend
into rivers. They feed on crustaceans, worms and detritus. Although very
bony, the flesh has soft texture and excellent flavour (Munro 1967: p.54).
There is a well-supported POc reconstruction continuing PMP
*qawa or *qawan. New Caledonian reflexes provide
support for final *-q. At least two SES cognates show confusion
with terms for mullet (cf. POc *(k,q)aRua(s), §18).
Lizardfish are small, slender and cylindrical, with a rather wide
mouth. Most are bottomliving inhabitants of muddy or sandy areas of
shallow coastal waters. They are barred and mottled to blend in with
bottom surroundings, and their general appearance suggests that of a
lizard. The flesh is not very bony but insipid (Munro 1967: p.70).
The only reconstruction made for this family is PCP *dolo,
PPn *tolo ‘Sanrida, lizardfish’ (Geraghty 1994: p.146). These may
reflect POc *(t,d)oloq ‘eel’ (§11.3), with semantic shift.
Catfish are recognizable by thick slimy naked skin and long head
feelers which resemble a cat’s whiskers. They are edible, with excellent
flesh despite their appearance. Munro (1994: p.74) describes most New
Guinea species as estuarine, although some frequent fresh water, while
Geraghty (pers. comm.) notes that in Fiji and probably Polynesia catfish
are found only in salt water. They are carnivorous bottom feeders,
swallowing anything in their way. Plotosus anguillaris is a
synonym for Plotosus lineatus.
Reflexes undergo a change of meaning in some Polynesian languages. Hooper (1994: p.221) suggests that an elongate
shape may provide the semantic link with snake mackerels, and, although
the two are found in very different environments, both are black and
slimy (Geraghty pers. comm.).
Eels are classified in a number of families within the Order
Anguilliformes. The best known within the region are the
freshwater eels (Anguillidae), and several sea eel families including
morays (Muraenidae), pike eels (Muraenesocidae), congers (Congridae) and
snake eels (Ophichthidae).
Although they spend most of their lives in fresh water, freshwater
eels migrate to sea to spawn. In inland areas they constitute an
important food item. POc *tuna is well supported as the generic
term for all freshwater eels.
Morays are large, thick-skinned eels with sharp knife-like teeth but
no pectoral fins. They can be pugnacious when confronted, although shy
by nature. Many are nocturnal. They are often found in the crevices of
coral banks. There are numerous species in New Guinea waters, many quite
distinctive in colouring and markings.
POc *[la]bʷa(s,j)i ‘moray eel’ is reconstructable both with
and without initial *la-.
The reconstruction below is weakly supported and it is uncertain what
kind of eel it referred to. It is listed in this section as its Titan
reflex refers to a kind of moray.
Lower-level reconstructions include PCP *boila ‘moray eel’
and *dravua ‘Gymnothorax sp.’ (Geraghty 1994: p.145).
11.3. Pike eels
(Muraenesocidae) and congers (Congridae)⇫
Pike eels are large, with prominent canine teeth and a long slender
snout. Conger eels are also large, with well-developed vertical and
pectoral fins. The two are sometimes classified together. The flesh of
both is excellent. Both occur in shallow water, although congers also
have deep-water forms.
Snake eels tend to lie on sandy or muddy bottoms in the vicinity of
reefs, often spending daylight hours completely buried, although they
can swim to the surface at night when attracted by lights. They are
difficult to trap, seldom taking a hook, while their slender bodies pass
through the mesh of nets and traps (Munro
1967: p.91). No reconstructions have been made.
Mota has two similar terms, maleo and marea, and it
is possible that the former is a borrowing from a Western Oceanic
language. The next set is in complementary distribution to the one
above, and it may be that we are dealing with a single cognate set,
although we would expect PROc †*malaya if directly inherited.
It is possible that PROc *maraya was borrowed from an
unrecorded language’s reflex of POc *malayo. Arosi (SES)
marea ‘k.o. eel’ also appears to reflect *maraya, but
it is reasonably likely that this is a Mota borrowing introduced by
missionaries, as Mota was a missionary lingua franca which was also used
in parts of the Solomon Islands in the nineteenth century.
The Polynesian terms may be linked through association with PPn
*tolo ‘to crawl’. Some eels (particularly snake eels),
lizardfish (§9) and mud skippers
(§49) may all be described as
mud dwellers.
The SES terms below show coalescence of *wa as -o
as has been noted also in some shark terms.
These fish are pelagic, swimming near the surface and gliding above
the water for considerable distances. They inhabit open coastal and
oceanic waters, are attracted to light at night and often leap aboard
vessels. Their flesh is of good quality (Munro 1967: p. 115). In Sa’a (Malaita),
flying fish, like the bonito, require a certain supernatural power to be
caught. Certain formalities must be followed and particular sacrifices
made before a canoe can set out to catch flying fish (Codrington 1891:138).
Munro identifies more than a dozen species, but terms located have
little elaboration of identity.
Lower-level reconstructions include PPn *mālolo ‘flying fish
spp.’ and PPn *sasawe ‘Exocoetidae spp., flying fish’
(Hooper 1994 p.201). PPn
*sipa ‘small or immature flying fish’ is considered to be a
reflex of POc *sipa ‘Hemiramphidae’, proposed in §13.
13.
Half beaks and garfishes (Hemiramphidae), needlefishes and long toms
(Belonidae)⇫
Adult halfbeaks and garfishes have an elongated shaft-like lower jaw
and very short upper jaw, although in juveniles the mouth is
symmetrical. Like needlefish they live near the surface and are
semipelagic. They inhabit shallow water and estuaries. The flesh is
delicate but full of fine bones. They are important food fishes (Munro 1967: p. 109).
Hemiramphus is the most common genus.
Needlefish and long toms are very slender, elongated with
forceps-like jaws, well-toothed with minute scales. They are both marine
and estuarine, and a few live permanently in fresh water. They often
congregate in schools. Generally voracious, they are potentially
dangerous because of their great speed and habit of making sudden leaps,
especially when attracted to lights at night. The flesh is excellent (Munro 1967: p. 105). Genera include
Belone, Platybelone, Strongylura and
Tylosurus.
The two families are here treated together because in a number of
languages (Halia, Kiribati, Mokilese, Rennellese, Samoan, Tikopia) there
is one term covering both, presumably reflecting similarities in shape
and habitat.
‘any of several halfbeaks’ (ihe ‘spear,
javelin, dart’)
The change in gloss in PPn below can be explained because of close
resemblance between garfishes and some flying fish, with the latter,
such as the beaked flying fish, Oxyporhamphus micropterus
micropterus, classified as Exocoetidae by Munro (p. 118) and more
recently as Hemiramphidae (Kailola 1987:153, FishBase). Half beaks,
garfish and flying fish all belong to the same suborder.
The following reconstruction is echoed in the transparent compound,
PMP/POc *saku-layaR ‘sailfish, swordfish’, which contains as
its second element *layaR ‘sail’ (§58 and vol.1,194-195).
Figure 2.9: Tylosurus
crocodilus crocodilus, giant long tom
Reduplicated reflexes of POc *sao in PPn below, refer
instead to Sphyraena, the barracuda, and possibly its juvenile
form. There is evidently some crossover of meaning between PPn
*sao-sao ‘Sphyraena sp.’ and PPn *tao-tao
‘Fistularia spp., probably including trumpetfish’ (see §15). This may be because both
barracuda and trumpetfish are, like the needlefish and garfish, long
narrow fish, spear-like in shape.
This family is well-represented through the region by most of the
approximately 70 species known worldwide. Most are brilliant red,
armoured with large rough scales with jagged edges. The head is
extremely rough and spiny. They have large eyes, and are often
longitudinally banded. Many species are nocturnal, living in holes in
the reef during the day (Munro 1967:
p. 138). Although most of the species are small, the flesh is considered
good eating. In Niuatoputapu they are caught on moonlit nights either
from a boat anchored near the reef or while standing on the reef edge
(Dye 1983:250). Genera include
Sargocentron [Holocentrus], Myripristis and
Flammeo. Adioryx is now classified as a junior synonym
of Sargocentron.
A number of taxa are typically distinguished in Oceanic languages.
Three POc terms are reconstructable. Nuclear Micronesian reflexes in the
following reconstruction confirm that this form was trisyllabic, as an
original disyllable would be reflected without final vowel (ACD).
Other reconstructions at PPn level include *malau taqa or
*taqa malau ‘Adioryx sp.’ (taʔa from POc
*taRaqan above) and *tala-kisi ‘soldier or
squirrelfish spp.’ (Hooper 1994
pp.201-202).
15.
Trumpetfishes (Aulostomidae), cometfishes and flutemouths
(Fistulariidae)⇫
Trumpetfishes (Aulostomidae) have a long compressed body, long head
and small mouth at the end of a long compressed snout. Colours change
from green through orange to reddish-brown in harmony with surroundings.
They are rather small, shallow-water fishes, frequently observed resting
motionless on the bottom (Munro 1967:
p.149). The family is widely distributed (Fowler 1928:6).
Cornetfishes somewhat resemble long toms, but are readily
distinguished by long flutelike snouts and whiplash-like filamentous
prolongation of middle caudal (tail) fin rays (Munro 1967: p.149).
A lower-level reconstruction is PCP *baba
‘Fistularia, flutemouth’ (Geraghty 1994: p.148). Hooper 1994 (p.200) offers PPn
*tao-tao ‘Fistularia sp., flutefish’, which no doubt
reflects the fish’s spearlike form (PPn *tao ‘spear’).
Most pipefishes (Syngnathidae) are long and thin, with a body covered
in bony plates. Though poor swimmers and very sluggish, many are widely
distributed by currents. Jointed bony armour of both species prevents
active swimming. Fins are of little use and have degenerated (Munro 1967: p. 151).
The seahorse probably did not hold much interest for early Oceanic
speakers, being neither economically useful nor dangerous. Collected
terms for it are rare, as evidenced by responses to a request from Bruce
Biggs on the an-lang e-mail list in 1999.8
However, a common element is apparent from NNG, MM and SES terms,
reinforced by a term from Yamdena (CMP), bwa-watan ‘seahorse’
(bwaye ‘crocodile’) which permits reliable reconstruction of
the word for crocodile as the first element in an otherwise variable
compound.
Kove (NNG) uses the same comparison, albeit with a non-cognate term
for ‘crocodile’, baɣele ele ɑto ‘seahorse, pipefish’ (bayele
‘crocodile’, ele ‘its’,ato ‘messenger’) (Ann Chowning,
pers. comm.9). In Dobu (PT) the term for
crocodile is warigoa, and that for seahorse or pipefish
wari-warigoa, reduplication of the first two syllables being a
common way of indicating an inferior or diminutive form of the named
item (Ross 2005b: 199).
Razorfish are small, extraordinarily modified fishes which are
extremely flattened and practically transparent. They swim in small
schools, each in a vertical position with head downward among branching
corals or sea urchins (Munro 1967:
p. 148). The name in Gela for Aeoliscus strigatus, razorfish is
iya tuyuru, literally ‘standing fish’. They also ‘sleep’ under
the sand and will disappear under the sand when threatened by predators
(Allen & Swainston
1993:82). No reconstructions have been made.
Some mullet species are extremely abundant, occurring in large
schools in coastal waters and estuaries. At least one species resides
permanently in fresh water. The fish usually swim near the surface and
congregate among grass-like plants on tidal flats. They are readily
taken in hauling seines, although many possess great leaping powers and
escape. The flesh is tasty and rich, with few bones (Munro 1967: p. 164).
Although there are two soundly based reconstructions going back to
PMP level, and one or two other more questionable POc reconstructions, I
have very few cognates from Western Oceanic. POc *kanase is
widely supported, and evidently refers to the best-known species,
Valamugil cunnesius, (formerly Liza cephalus or
Mugil cephalus]. POc *kaRapa is reconstructable, but
as a term for Liza vaigiensis is reliable only for Eastern
Oceanic. Reflexes of POc *(k,q)aRua(s) refer to a range of
mullet species, with size/growth stage possibly relevant.
Named growth stages of Valamugil cunnesius are listed from
Dobu (PT) and three Polynesian languages. They run from from smallest to
largest.
Blust (2002:128) reconstructs both PMP
*qaRuas and PMP *qawas, but the reflexes of the latter
are almost all from languages in which *R is lost, so it is
reasonable to infer that they reflect PMP *qaRuas, and that
*qawas is not reconstructable.
Although the following set of forms points to POc *kaRapa,
the reference is consistent only for Remote Oceanic cognates. There is a
single putative Western Oceanic reflex which refers to the mandarin fish
(Synchiropus splendidus), a distinctive, brilliantly coloured
but little-known fish, not more than 10 cm in length, and very
dissimilar to mullets.
Geraghty 1994 (p.157)
reconstructs PCP *jeqevo(o,u), PPn *teqefō ‘juvenile
mullet’. John Lynch (pers. comm.) suggests that a number of New
Caledonian reflexes, Fwai, Nemi, Jawe thiāp ‘mangrove mullet’,
may be related, thus indicating PROc *jeqevo(o,u).
Hooper 1994 (p.204) reconstructs
PPn *fua-fua ‘juvenile mullet’. With the addition of Wayan
Fijian vua-vua ‘small reef fish, 2-3 cm’ this reconstruction
can be raised to PCP *vua-vua ‘k.o. small fish’.
These are small silvery fishes occurring in large schools in shallow
coastal waters and estuaries where they can be netted. Munro (p. 171)
lists a dozen or so species and describes them as useful for bait. They
are similar to sardines in appearance and behaviour.
Barracudas are fast-swimming, carnivorous, pike-like fish, elongated
and slender, which slash their prey with sharp dog-like teeth. Larger
ones are regarded as dangerous because they have been known to attack
humans. Munro calls them good fighters. They have firm delicate
flavoured flesh and are a valuable food fish. They are normally caught
by trolling. Larger species occur in coastal waters over shoals and
around reefs (Munro 1967: p.161).
Growth stages of Sphyraena barracuda10
and Sphyraena forsteri in Lau (SES) are ono,
mamal-ito, ili (Akimichi 1978:308). Dye (1983:261) lists four growth stages for
barracuda in the Niuatoputapu dialect of Tongan: tupuŋa-ʔono,
momoto, hapatū, ʔono.
Five POc terms are reconstructable, with *qonos possibly the
generic. Final *-s is indicated by Nehan and the two Te Motu
reflexes. Other reconstructions refer either to a particular species or
to particular growth stages.
POc
*qonos
‘mature Sphyraena spp., possibly generic for all
barracuda’ (ACD: POc *qono)
‘largest barracudas, Sphyraena barracuda and possibly
other Sphyraena spp.’ (metathesis)
The cognate set below points to a four-syllable reconstruction
*bʷara-wa(r,d,dr,R)a(q) As the parentheses indicate, the
reflexes do not agree as to the identity of the second liquid.
Admiralties and Papuan Tip languages reflect *d or
*dr, Southeast Solomonic languages and Pije (New Caledonia)
reflect *r, and Tikopia (Polynesian) reflects *R.
However, it is so unlikely that this set of forms is the result of
chance that we must infer that borrowing has taken place at some point.
We also note that the Papuan Tip terms are glossed ‘moray eel’.
John Lynch (pers. comm.) points out that a four-syllable
reconstruction is likely to be bimorphemic,
i.e. *bʷara-wa(r,d,dr,R)a(q), and cites New Caledonian evidence
in support of this. Nelemwa bʷara-gom ‘moray eel’ seems to
reflect the first morpheme, and Fwai walagan ‘barracuda’
perhaps contains the second.
POc
*bʷara-wa(r,d,dr,R)a(q)
‘Sphyraena sp., possibly Sphyraena jello, the
slender or pickhandle sea pike’
The next reconstruction, POc *qutur, shares the same form as
a reconstruction for a very dissimilar fish, the jobfish, the latter
reconstructable to PMP level (see §30). A competing gloss,
‘Sphyraena sp., barracuda’, is based on cognates from PT, NCV
and Pn. These two etyma appear to be homonyms rather than cognates.
Niuean retains a reflex of both etyma. PPT *qudur, rather than
†*qutur, is reconstructable for both jobfish and barracuda.
Hooper (1994: p.203) identifies PPn
*sao-sao as a growth stage for juvenile barracuda (see also §13, p.52). As both Wayan and
Niuatoputapu distinguish three stages of growth, another growth stage
can be identified as PCP *moto-moto.
These fish inhabit coastal waters, often penetrating into fresh
water. They are noted for brilliant glassy eyes which glow at night.
Although we have an apparent POc reconstruction, *mata-pula,
lit ‘eyes’ + ‘shine’ (§24), the
most consistent references of its reflexes are to Priacanthus
cruentatus [now Heteropriacanthus cruentatus], ‘red
globe-eye’ in Polynesian languages. The single non-Polynesian reflex,
Kove (NNG) matapula ‘large freshwater fish’, may refer to
Centropomidae.
22.
Rock cods, reef cods, coral cods, groupers etc. (Serranidae)⇫
These fish inhabit shallow coastal waters and estuaries, and are
especially abundant around coral reefs and shoals. Many are brilliantly
coloured in shades of red to brown, some with distinctive patterns.
Nearly all are excellent eating. They are carnivorous and voracious, and
one species, Epinephelus lanceolatus, the Queensland grouper,
which can grow to three metres in length and up to 400 kg in weight, can
be dangerous to divers (Munro 1967:
p.264). Most, however, are under a metre in length. Genera include
Epinephelus, Cephalopholis and Plectropomus,
each with dozens of species. Oceanic languages typically distinguish
many taxa.
Six POc reconstructions are supported. *kuRapu seems
reliably to refer to the most distinctive member of the family,
Epinephelus lanceolatus. Distinguishing the meanings of the
other five reconstructions has proved difficult. The lack of conformity
in glosses may be due to the possibility that the terms they represent
are generic for particular groupings, with wordlists naming only the
most familiar members of the set.
The gloss of ‘rock cod, grouper’ for the following reconstruction is
based on reflexes from Dobu (PT) and Fiji. In Gitua, Arosi, Woleaian and
Hawaiian, apparent reflexes refer to trevally, blenny, parrotfish or
wrasse, while elsewhere in Polynesia they refer to the crescent perch,
Terapon jarbua (§35).
Such fish have little in common, and the similarity of name may be
coincidental.
Munro 1967 (p.254) describes
Kuhliidae as small to moderate-sized fishes, generally inhabiting
shallow coastal waters, with some species preferring brackish or fresh
water, often in the vicinity of mangroves. Salt-water species are a
brilliant silver. Our only reconstructions are lower-level: PCP
*sere, PPn *sesele ‘immature Kuhlia rupestris’, PCP
*drava ‘k.o. small freshwater fish, possibly Kuhlia
sp.’ (Geraghty 1994: p.150) and
PPn *safole ‘Kuhlia spp., flagtail’ (Hooper 1994: p.206).
These are small to moderate-sized fishes of distinctive appearance.
All are bright rosy with a rough sandpapery skin. The eye is large,
about half head size. They are nocturnal, typically spending daylight in
caves or under ledges (Munro 1967:
p.284).
The PPn term, *mata-pula ‘Priacanthus cruentatus,
red globe-eye’ is a descriptive compound (lit. mata ‘eye’ +
pula ‘shine, glow’) (Hooper
1994: p.202). The same compound is found in Kove (NNG), where the
referent is a large freshwater fish, probably Centropomidae (§21).
Cardinalfish are small carnivorous fishes. Many are vividly coloured,
with striking patterns of bands, stripes or spots. Most live in or
around coral reefs and amongst weeds, and in shallow tidal pools,
although some prefer brackish water and others inhabit deeper water.
Like the Priacanthidae, they are nocturnal, hiding under ledges or in
crevices during daylight. The male usually carries the eggs and newly
hatched young in its mouth (Munro
1967: p.241). No reconstructions have been made.
This is a large, widely distributed family of fast-swimming surface
predators which generally inhabit the coastal edge of the deep water.
Larger species frequent edges of reefs. Most congregate in schools, and
can be caught along beaches with seines. Their flesh is of good texture
and flavour (Munro 1967: p.221).
Oceanic languages typically distinguish many taxa.
In Niuatoputapu, deep sea anglers take pride in withstanding the
rigours of a dusk to dawn session of lauʔotule, fishing from an
anchored boat in around 17 fathoms of water, and using a pressure gas
lamp to attract the fish (big-eyed scad, Selar
crumenophthalmus) (Dye
1983:250).
I have six POc reconstructions, but can be confident of matching
terms with specific genera for only four, POc *qatule ‘Selar
spp., scad’, POc *pilu ‘Caranx spp., trevally’, POc
*lasi ‘Scomberoides spp., leatherskin’ and POc
*kamaRi ‘Elagatis bipinnulata, rainbow runner’. Other
genera include Carangoides, Trachinotus,
Gnathanodon, and Decapterus. Where the reflexes cover
a range of genera, the reconstructions are simply labelled carangid. The
popularity of these fish both as sporting fish and as food, and their
role in places as appropriate tribute for chiefs, are reflected by the
number of terms for their growth stages. Here I can reconstruct PPn
terms for growth stages, *lupo-lupo for the smallest and
*qulua for a large caranx, (not necessarily the largest).
Figure 2.15:LeftGnathanodon speciosus, golden trevally.
RightAlectis indica, plumed
trevally.
PMP
*qatulay
‘Trachurops crumenophthalmus, the big-eyed scad’
(ACD)
POc
*qatule
‘Selar spp. including Selar crumenophthalmus,
big-eyed scad’
‘various species of reef fishes of the genus Coris’
Reflexes of the next set have consistent reference to larger species
only in the Central Pacific. Caranx ignobilis and Caranx
sexfasciatus are among the largest of the trevallies.
Oceanic reflexes of the next set refer fairly consistently to
Scomberoides spp. (=Chorinemus), fishes known variously as
leatherskin, whitefish, queenfish, skinnyfish or giant dart. They can
grow to over a metre in length. Blust (ACD) has reconstructed PMP
*lajih ‘dolphinfish’ and PMP *daRi ‘leatherskin’, with
Oceanic reflexes of the former apparently referring to the leatherskin.
The two Mutu (NNG) terms below suggest that the dolphinfish may
sometimes be referred to as the leatherskin’s mother. For dolphinfish
sets, see §27 below.
Malcolm Ross (vol.2,49-50)
reconstructs POc *mala ‘resembling’ which occurs in plant names
and occasionally, it seems, in fish names as well. Of the terms listed
in the set below, those consisting of a compound mala +
modifier could all be considered ‘resembling’ examples. If this is the
common meaning of *mala we would expect it to be reflected in
terms for fishes not necessarily related.16
The fact that the most frequent reference in this set is to carangids
suggests that a similar form was a POc fish name. However, because the
carangid examples are largely restricted to the Solomons (the only
exception being Samoan), it may be that *mala came to be used
in the Solomons as a generic for carangids, as Hviding has suggested for
Marovo. For this reason no POc reconstruction is proposed.
Figure 2.16:Coryphaena hippurus, common dolphinfish
Dolphinfish are large swift-swimming powerful fish, pelagic and
mostly oceanic, but sometimes found around reefs. They are spectacular
fighters which leap from the water when hooked. They have brilliant
colouration and excellent flesh. Munro (pp.218-219) records two species
for the family, with Coryphaena hippurus being larger and
better known than Coryphaena equiselis. They are not to be
confused with dolphins, cetaceans of the family Delphinidae, although
some Polynesian dictionaries gloss their term for Coryphaena
hippurus as ‘dolphin’.
Ponyfishes are all very small, with a highly protractile mouth, the
feature which is reflected in an alternative name, pouters. Slime is
exuded in large quantities after capture. Large schools can be caught
along sheltered beaches and estuaries (Munro 1967, p.237). In Lau (Malaita)
they are freshwater fish, moving between the rivers and the lagoon (Akimichi 1978:310). Few terms have
been located and no reconstructions made.
Most fusiliers are brilliantly coloured with iridescent blue and
yellow. They can be taken in great abundance near coral reefs and rocky
shores. Very large schools migrate for long distances. They swim with
synchronised quick precision. Flesh is coarse but not unpalatable (Munro 1967: p.300). Hooper quotes Lewis
et al. as describing them as important tuna baitfish in many areas
(Hooper p.192). This may explain why the Tokelauan term for mackerel
scad, a different fish but also a tuna baitfish, is cognate with terms
for fusilier species in the following set.
‘large size of tikava, Pterocaesio tile,
tricoloured fusilier’
PCP/PPn *tikawa ‘Caesio sp.’ is reconstructed by
Geraghty (p.152), Hooper (p.210).
30. Snappers
or sea-perch, basses, jobfishes (Lutjanidae)⇫
Snappers are rather large fish with a sheathed maxillary, typically
red or yellow in colouring. Although known largely as reef fishes
inhabiting rocky bottoms, the family includes deep sea snappers. Their
flesh is highly esteemed, although a few have been implicated in
ciguatera poisoning (Munro 1967:
p.288).
There are many species of Lutjanidae, some quite distinctive in
markings, and Oceanic languages typically distinguish several taxa. I
have seven possible POc reconstructions but, except for POc
*qutur ‘Aprion virescens, green jobfish’, it is
difficult to give precise glosses. Some are probably names of particular
species, one or two are generic for two or more species, others may be
names of particular species at a certain stage of growth.
Figure 2.17:Lutjanus fulviflamma, Dory snapper
The proposed gloss of POc *qutur is based on the agreement
of non-Oceanic cognates with those of the Central Pacific.17Aprion virescens, the
green jobfish, is found at depths that vary from 0-180 metres
(FishBase). See §20 regarding
the homophony of this etymon with POc *qutur ‘k.o. fish,
possibly Sphyraena sp., barracuda’ .
In the set below, the Andra, Kilivila and Temotu items reflect
*bʷapa rather than *bʷawa. I have no explanation for
this variation. The Fijian and Polynesian reflexes show coalescence of
*-wa as -o.18
Lutjanidae and Lethrinidae are from the same sub-order of perch-like
fishes. It is possible that the next reconstruction included members of
both families.
POc
*sabutu
‘snapper (Lutjanus sp. or Lutjanus spp.) or
emperor (Lethrinus sp. or Lethrinus spp.)’
Also reconstructed are PCP *batisai ‘Lutjanus
monostigma’, PCP *kʷak(a,e) ‘Lutjanus monostigma’
(Geraghty 1994: pp. 152-153), PPn
*sawane ‘Lutjanus kasmira, blue-lined sea perch’ and
PPn *taŋaqu ‘Lutjanus spp. including Liza
vaigiensis and probably other yellow or yellow-red species’ (Hooper 1994: pp.210-211 and A. Hooper & Huntsman (1991:120).
PPn *palu is included here with supporting evidence as an
unusual case. Hooper and
Huntsman (1991:119-127) write that in
Polynesia the two fishes which are associated most strongly with the
name palu are unrelated: the oilfish Ruvettus
pretiosus and the deep sea snappers (ruby snapper Etelis
carbunculus, flower snapper Pristipomoides zonatus,
big-eyed snapper Pristipomoides argyrogrammicus, and the
small-toothed jobfish Aphareus furca). These fishes share deep
water habitats, being caught at depths of 200 metres or more by handline
fishing, with the long line carrying a series of spaced hooks. The
technique requires great strength and skill, and Hooper quotes Roger
Green as believing that it was probably a late Samoic-Outlier
innovation, depending as it does on suitable deepwater environments
where the fish can be found, calm water, adequate tackle and appropriate
ocean-going canoe skills. We have no evidence that POc speakers fished
at this depth. See §56 for
Gempylidae, snake mackerels, oilfish.
Most are brilliantly coloured, inhabiting sand and rubble areas
around reefs. The flesh is of good flavour (Munro 1967: p.308). One weakly supported
reconstruction is proposed.
These are a small family frequenting sandy shores and muddy
estuaries, and at times, coral reefs. They are known chiefly for the
free filaments in the pectoral fin, a feature which is reflected in its
name as a reduplicated term for ‘beard’. They also have a projecting
snout and large adipose eyelids, which reflect adaptation to muddy
environments where sense of touch compensates for loss of vision. The
flesh has excellent flavour and texture (Munro 1967: p. 189).
Our only reconstruction is at PPn level, PPn *kumi-kumia
‘Polydactylus sexfilis. Polydactylus plebeius:
threadfin’ (from POc *kumi ‘beard’ (Hooper p.204). Hooper notes
that the Tokelauan word for Polydactylus sexfilis is
ava-ava, also meaning ‘beard’.
Misima (PT) has a term kum-kum ‘generic for damselfish,
Chromis spp. and others’, considered a chance resemblance.
The mojarras are small silvery fish with very protractile jaws,
superficially resembling pouters (Leiognathidae). They move in large
schools, mostly along sandy shores (Munro
1967: p.331).
34.
Sweetlips, javelinfishes (Haemulidae, formerly Plectorhynchidae and
Pomadasyidae)⇫
These moderate-sized fish inhabit coastal waters around coral reefs.
Some, particularly the juveniles, are strikingly marked and brightly
coloured, but colour pattern varies greatly with age. The flesh flavour
is good (Munro 1967: p.315).
Some of the following forms attributed to POc *(k,q)umutuR
show loss of the first syllable. The only languages which disambiguate
*k- from *q- are Nakanai, where *k is
reflected and Wayan, where *q is reflected. The Gela term is
apparently borrowed from a Northwest Solomonic language as it retains
final consonant with echo vowel.
Teraponidae are small Indo-Pacific fish occurring in shallow tidal,
brackish or fresh water. Species differ greatly in proportions and
colour, some plain and others conspicuously banded. Some species make
grunting noises (Munro 1967:
p.320).
There is a PPn reconstruction, *kawa-kawa ‘Terapon
jarbua, crescent perch’, based on Niuatoputapu and E Uvean
kava-kava, Samoan ʔava-ʔava, all ‘Terapon
jarbua’ but none for a higher order interstage. POc
*kawa-kawa ‘rock cod, grouper’ (§22) is considered unrelated.
Emperors inhabit shallow coastal waters around rocky outcrops and
coral reefs, moving in schools. Most are fairly brightly coloured in
shades of red and green. Their flesh is excellent (Munro 1967: p.324). Four genera are
identified, Lethrinus, Gnathodentex,
Gymnocranius and Monotaxis. We have seven POc
reconstructions, but in a number of instances their reflexes have come
to be applied to different referents in daughter languages. In such
cases reconstructions are simply labelled Lethrinidae or
Lethrinus spp.
In the following set there has been confusion with reflexes of POc
*(k,q)ulapi) ‘parrotfish’ (§47) in Tokelauan.
‘Lethrinus elongatus’ (suru
generic; kʷatoa ‘digging stick’ The shape of Lethrinus
elongatus is distinctive and the specific names often refer to the
pointed snout.)
Despite their similarity to items reflecting POc *surup,
members of the set below apparently reflect a separate etymon, since the
sound correspondences of the two sets cannot be reconciled.
Also reconstructed are PCP *ŋujula ‘Lethrinus
elongates’, PCP *kabatiko ‘Lethrinus sp.’, and
PCP *(m,b)ū, PPn *mū ‘Monotaxisg randoculis,
large-eyed sea bream’ (Geraghty
1994: p. 153, Hooper p.212). POc *sabutu ‘Lutjanus
ox_Lethrinus_ sp.’ has also been reconstructed (see cognate set in §30)
The Mullidae have large scales and two barbels at the chin. Small to
moderate in size and usually red or gold, they are bottom-dwellers,
often occurring in large schools (Munro
1967: p.334). Genera include Mulloidichthys,
Parupeneus, Upeneus and Pseudupeneus. Both in
Andra (Adm) (McEldowney 1995)
and Kapingamarangi (Pn) (Lieber
1994), goatfish are reported as particularly numerous in stone
fishtrap catches. Most species are considered good eating. We have five
POc reconstructions, one of which is traceable with consistent referent
back to PAn, and one which probably refers to a growth stage.
Sweepers are a small family of nocturnal fishes that spend daylight
hours in caves and crevices of the reef. They sometimes form large
aggregations which disperse after dusk and feed on zooplankton during
the night (Allen &
Swainston 1993:58). They are dusky silver or bright red, most with
very large eyes (Munro 1967:
p.349).
No POc reconstruction has been made. A lower level reconstruction
includes PCP *manivi ‘Pempheris sp.’ (Geraghty p.155),
PPn *manifi ‘Pempheris oualensis’ (Hooper 1994: p.213) (cf. POc
*manipis ‘thin’- vol.2,202).
Drummers or rudderfishes are a small family. Fishes are typically
small, finely and closely scaled, and dull in colour. Most species are
pelagic, often found under floating medusae. They are herbivorous fish,
feeding chiefly on algae and seaweed. The flesh is regarded as edible
but of poor quality (Munro 1967:
p.352).
In the next set, PPn *ranue is proposed rather than
*nanue. This would have become anue in Pre-Tongic
(where r > ∅), with later loss of initial a-. In
PNPn *ranue > *lanue by regular sound change, then
*nanue by assimilation.
These are small, deep-bodied, compressed fishes, distinguished by
their diamond shape and silvery colour and superficially resembling the
juveniles of batfishes. They inhabit shallow coastal waters, preferring
brackish water and sometimes penetrating into fresh water (Munro p.348).
No widespread cognate sets have been found.
Allen & Swainston
(1993:58) describe the
batfishes of the genus Platax as among the most graceful of
coral reef fishes. They are characterised by long, flowing fins,
particularly in their juvenile and sub-adult stages. Adults have almost
round bodies. Young ones resemble a leaf in colour and can sink inertly
through the water, becoming difficult to see. Batfish are often
extremely tame and curious. They are found both on sheltered inshore
reefs and on outer slopes.
Butterflyfish are among the most readily recognised of coral reef
fishes due to their graceful shapes and wide range of brilliant colour
patterns. Colours are usually combinations of black, red, orange, yellow
and white. The fishes are diurnal and some species are extremely
territorial, inhabiting one or more heads of plate coral. At dusk they
retreat to reef crevices where they remain motionless until dawn (Allen & Swainston
1993:60).
Figure 2.21:Chaetodon sp., coralfish
Both Hooper (1994: p. 188) and Hviding (1996:192) have commented on the fact
that in Oceanic languages butterflyfish, coralfish and angelfish are
sometimes lumped together under one generic term, although angelfish
belong in a separate family, Pomacanthidae. Chaetodontidae are of little
value for food, and there is apparently little point in distinguishing
species or growth stages. I have two POc reconstructions, which
presumably contrasted in meaning, but reflexes of both *bebek
and *tipi-tipi have in some languages been used as the generic
form for butterflyfish, coralfish, and perhaps others, and I have been
unable to differentiate between their meanings. Although the final
*-k of *bebek is not supported by the evidence given
here, there can be no doubt that the same word in POc referred to both
‘butterfly’ and ‘butterflyfish’.
POc
*bebek
‘generic for Chaetodontidae, coralfish and butterflyfish’
(also ‘butterfly’; ch.7, §3)
Angelfish are small to moderate-sized marine fish, frequenting coral
reefs. They are close relatives of butterflyfish and the two families
are sometimes included within the same term in local nomenclature. Like
butterflyfish, they have extremely brilliant colours and complicated
patterns. However, they can be distinguished by possession of a
prominent cheek spine which can inflict a painful wound if handled
carelessly. Some undergo astonishing changes in colour and markings with
age. Larger ones are valued as food (Munro 1967: p.371).
44.
Damselfishes or demoiselles, anemonefishes, sergeant-majors, pullers
(Pomacentridae)⇫
Figure 2.22:Adudefduf sp., sergeant-major
These are very active brilliant little fishes of the coral reefs,
seeking shelter among branches of coral and in crevices. They are often
left in tide pools. They are trim and shapely, greatly suggesting
butterflyfish in mode of life. Coloration is highly variable, ranging
from grey to yellow to blue. Genera include Pomacentrus
(damselfish), Amphiprion (anemonefish, clownfish),
Abudefduf (sergeant-majors) and Chromis (pullers), and
there are dozens of species. Two POc terms are reconstructed, the second
one, *taku-takuŋ, possibly the term for juveniles, those of
many species being distinctively marked by a yellow body with bright
blue stripes (Allen &
Swainston 1993:74).
Reflexes of POc *taku-takuŋ, reconstructed below, have been
reduplicated in various ways. Gumawana and PPn both reflect
*t(o,u)kukuŋ, where the first syllable, *t(o,u)- is
perhaps itself a reduction of *taku-. Bing and Takia both
reflect full reduplication after loss of *-k- Only Teop
reflects the more usual Oceanic reduplication in *taku-takuŋ.
Central Pacific terms show assimilation of the first vowel *a
> u.
Many Cirrhitidae are richly coloured and abundant about coral reefs
and rocks. They are solitary and sedentary, frequently seen sitting on
top of coral heads, from which they make quick short darts for food (Munro 1967: p.442). Two reconstructions
are possible at PPn level, *patuki (Geraghty p.157) and
*qulu-tuki (Hooper p.206). Their association with
*tuki ‘to beat, pound’, is not understood.
There are over 400 species of Labridae, falling into some 60 genera
which include Anampses, Bodianus, Cheilinus
(Maori wrasse), Choerodon (tuskfish), Coris,
Epibulus, Gomphosus, Halichoeres and
Thalassoma. Wrasses are brilliantly coloured, living around
coral reefs and amongst weeds. Juvenile wrasses often differ from
adults, and in some the sexes differ in colour and pattern. Some change
colour and pattern with great rapidity (Munro 1967: pp.402, 405). They are
active during daylight hours, retiring to the shelter of the reef at
night. Some species, such as members of the genus Coris, bury
themselves in the sand. Most are medium sized fishes (about 20-40 cm),
but the double-headed Maori wrasse, Cheilinus undulatus, is
notable for its size, growing to over two metres in length. Oceanic
languages typically distinguish many wrasse taxa. Although I have a
number of POc reconstructions, there is little consistency of reference
within cognate sets, other than within Polynesia. So, although in each
case the POc meaning may have been restricted to one or more species, or
even to growth stages, I am obliged to reconstruct in very general
terms. In the following set, the Rotuman reflex of *mamin
refers not to the Maori wrasse, but to the largest parrotfish, the
hump-headed parrotfish, Bolbometopon muricatum, which resembles
it. Although Geraghty (1994: p.159) reconstructs PCP
*mami ‘Bolbometopon, hump-headed parrotfish’, he does
so presumably on Rotuman evidence alone.
Both POc *mamin and POc *taŋapa(R,r) have reflexes
which refer specifically to Cheilinus undulatus. It is possible
that both POc terms referred to growth stages.
Parrotfish are closely related to the wrasses, although the latter
are carnivorous. Parrotfish are herbivorous, typically large, the jaws
with a bony beak. They are reef dwellers, feeding chiefly on vegetable
matter, but their strong beaks easily crush molluscs and coral. Most
pass through one to three colour phases. Juveniles are usually plain,
with mottling; immatures usually patterned with red, brown or purple,
adults with blue, green, yellow, orange or red patterns (Munro 1967: p.431). Like the wrasses
they retreat into holes in the coral at night to sleep. Genera include
Scarus, Hipposcarus and Bolbometopon.
The double-headed or hump-headed parrotfish, Bolbometopon
muricatum, is distinguished by its size and the hump on its
forehead. While most species of parrotfish are under 50 cm in length,
the hump-headed parrotfish can reach 120 cm or more. The Admiralties
forms below indicate that there was a final POc consonant, probably
*-q.
The exact form of the next reconstruction is unclear, as (i) the
vowels have switched places in some reflexes, and (ii) Gapapaiwa
-n- reflects both POc *-l- and *-n-.
*-l- is reflected in the Bauro and Rapa reflexes, *-n-
in the remaining Polynesian reflexes.
The colour term green/blue has been reconstructed as POc
*[ma]karawa, PEOc *marawa (see vol.2,207). This is no doubt the
source of the following term for the green parrotfish. The Motu term can
carry a number of modifiers which are also colour terms: karava
vaiuri (vaiuri = purplish), karava kaka kaka
(red), karava labora (yellow) (Nigel Oram n.d.). The Micronesian forms reflect
*maRawa, not *marawa.
‘parrotfish: Chlorurus strongylocephalus, (purple-headed
parrotfish); Callyodon formosus, (Kellogg’s parrotfish);
Scarus microrhinos (blunt-headed parrotfish). Gira
gira refers to colour. Face is bent with large forehead’
(Oram n.d.)
The Patpatar and Buma reflexes in the following cognate set indicate
a monosyllable. The PCP form is probably the outcome of *bʷos +
an unknown morpheme.
Lower-level reconstructions include PNCV *saumʷa
‘parrotfish, Scarus sp.’ (François 2005:499), PCP
*bobo ‘Scarus sp.’ (Geraghty p. 160) and PPn
*qufu ‘wrasse or parrotfish’ (Hooper 1994: p.217).
48.
Sandperches, Grubfishes (Pinguipedidae, and also Mugiloididae,
Parapercidae)⇫
Fijian iko-tokoto-nivōsai and PNPn *takoto (E Uvean
and Samoan), although evidently similar, are both independently derived
from the verb PCP *(ta)koto ‘lie down’, which is typical
sandperch behaviour (Geraghty p. 160). Samoan taʔoto is glossed
‘saury’, a fish from a different family, but one which also tends to lie
on the bottom, sometimes burying itself in sand. No widespread cognate
sets have been located.
49.
Gobies, including mudskippers (Gobiidae), blennies (Blenniidae)⇫
Gobies are very small sluggish fishes abundant about reefs and coral.
They are usually found sheltering among weeds, under stones or in
crevices, in rock pools and quiet water (Munro p.493). They constitute
the largest family of marine fishes worldwide with several hundred
species in New Guinea alone, but the paucity of terms in dictionaries
for gobies suggests they are of little importance. There are some
freshwater species. Mudskippers or land gobies can leave the water and
hop or crawl over rocks or mud in search of food. They were formerly
classified as Periopthalmidae, but are now considered a sub-family of
Gobiidae. Blennies are small carnivorous fishes, living mainly in rock
pools in the intertidal zone. They rarely swim free and spend most of
their time concealed. Oceanic languages often group them with gobies
which inhabit similar environments.
These fish are similar to gobies in their habit of lying on the
bottom and rarely moving. Some species hover in cloud-like swarms over
coral heads. Most are small and insignificant but there are some fresh
water species which grow larger and are valued food fish in inland areas
(Munro 1967: p.512).
English folk taxonomies evidently use the term ‘whitebait’ for a
range of very small silver schooling fishes from various families
including Eleotridae, Atherinidae, Engraulidae, Clupeidae and Galaxiidae
(smelts).
These moderate-sized fish are adapted for life on the bottom where
they bury themselves in sand with only the eyes exposed. Most are
excellent eating (Munro 1967: p.526).
Thus it is surprising that few terms have been recorded from
contemporary languages and no reconstructions made.
Moorish idols superficially resemble butterflyfish, with strongly
marked bands of black, white and yellow, but have a distinctive
protruding snout. They are found around coral reefs in shallow water.
Formerly two species were recognised, Zanclus canescens and
Zanclus cornutus, but the former is now considered the juvenile
form of the latter (Kailola p.459, FishBase). Hooper (p.215) has
reconstructed PNPn *laulau-fau ‘Zanclus canescens,
Moorish idol’.
All Acanthuridae are herbivorous coral reef fish, scraping algae with
their fine teeth. Genera include Naso, Acanthurus,
Zebrasoma and Ctenochaetus. They have thick leathery
skin and a spine with one or more knife-like barbs on the tail which are
capable of severe wounding. Surgeonfish are so named because of these
lancetlike spines, unicorn fish because of the horn-like projection on
the forehead. Juveniles differ greatly and are usually separately named
in vernacular nomenclatures (Munro
1967: p.482). More POc reconstructions have been made for
Acanthuridae than for any other family. Three refer to the genus Naso
‘unicornfish’, but only one, *qume, clearly refers to a single
species, Naso unicornis.
‘Acanthurus guttatus, white-spotted surgeonfish’
(o unexpected)
A number of terms for surgeonfish have been reconstructed. The
following reconstruction, POc *piRa(q), is identical in form
with the term for Alocasia, swamp taro, which, like
Zebrasoma veliferum, is unpalatably acid unless the skin is
carefully removed (Geraghty
1990:78). A parallel development is found in Rotuman, where
ʔapea means both ‘swamp taro’ and ‘sailfin tang’.
Geraghty (1994: pp. 161-162) adds further PCP
reconstructions: PCP *tusi ‘Acanthurus sp.’ (PPn
*tusi ‘mark, stripe’); *masa ‘a small dark
Acanthuridae, possibly Zebrasoma scopas. blue-lined tang or
Acanthurus pyroferus, mimic surgeonfish’ and
*ma(c,s)i-ma(c,s)i) ‘Naso sp.’.
Rabbitfish or spinefeet are herbivorous fish, inhabiting grassy
shallow waters. Their fin spines are very sharp and can inflict painful
stings. They have characteristic rabbit-shaped heads. Their flesh is
edible. Oceanic languages usually distinguish several taxa. Two
Polynesian terms in the next set refer instead to Epinephelidae which
resemble the Siganidae in having dangerous spines.
Two terms similar in form to *marawa, PCP/PPn
*maqawa ‘Siganus rostratus’ and PPn *paqaua
‘Siganus spinus’, have also been reconstructed (Geraghty 1994: pp. 163-164).
Snake mackerels (Gempylus serpens, Promethichthys
prometheus, Ruvettus pretiosus) inhabit deeper coastal and
oceanic waters, and are sometimes found at depths as great as 600
metres. The flesh is edible but oily. Davis (1999: 164) writes that Ruvettus
pretiosus is so oily that eating even a small amount of its flesh
has a strongly laxative effect. In some parts of Polynesia Ruvettus
pretiosus is known by reflexes of PPn *palu, whose range
of reference may also include jobfish and other deep-sea snappers. Both
oilfish and deep-sea snappers are found at great depths (§30). As mentioned earlier (p.78),
the ability to fish water at these depths was probably a late
Samoic-Outlier innovation. Some local terminologies group snake
mackerels with barracudas, also elongated and slender with powerful
dentition. In places they may also be identified with catfish (Pukapukan
and Tokelauan kapoa ‘Promethichthys prometheus’ >
POc *kaboRa ‘catfish’). Promethichthys prometheus has
also been known as Bermuda catfish. Hooper has reconstructed PPn
*maŋā ‘k.o. fish’ with meaning in Eastern Polynesian languages
‘Promethichthys prometheus, snake mackerel’.
Munro recognised distinct families: Katsuwonidae (skipjack and
dogtooth tuna), Scombero-moridae (Spanish mackerel), Scombridae
(mackerel), Thunnidae (albacore, tunnies, big eye, bluefin and yellowfin
tuna), and Acanthocybidae (wahoo), but these have now been combined as
one family, Scombridae (Kailola (1987:467, FishBase). These fish are
mostly large, fast surface predators, highly regarded both for food and
sport. There is considerable variation in English glosses within cognate
sets, due possibly to variable popular usage of terms like tuna, bonito,
tunny and mackerel by wordlist compilers. In particular, although the
English vernacular term bonito typically refers to Katsuwonus
pelamis (skipjack), it is sometimes extended to include any pelagic
fish caught by trolling from fast canoes, including Katsuwonus,
Gymnosarda and Thunnus. Reflexes of POc
*qatun may be similarly applied in both narrow and extended
senses. Katsuwonus (skipjacks) and Gymnosarda
(dogtooth tunas) are generally distinguished from Thunnus (true
tunas) by the former’s apparently scaleless body. Most skipjacks
(bonito) are school fishes, found around the outer edges of reefs where
they can be taken by trolling. They travel in large schools offshore
along the coast at certain seasons, the schools often boiling at the
surface. These fish have a special role in many parts of the Oceanic
world. Simbo speakers in the NW Solomons divide fin fishes into three
categories: baɣea ‘sharks’, iso ‘bonito’ and
iɣana ‘generic for all fish other than sharks and bonito’ (Bill
Palmer pers. comm.). Ivens (1927:130) writes that “to the Melanesian
of the Southeast Solomons the catching of the bonito is one of the
things for which he exists. To him it is the king of fish”. Solomon
Islanders incorporate them in initiating ceremonies and associate them
with various taboos (1927:130-131, 314, 329-330). Many different names
are used for bonito in particular roles, a reflection of their
importance in these communities. In similar vein, bonito fishing in
Kapingamarangi is described by local fishermen as “their sport of kings”
(Lieber 1994:77). In Tonga also, the
bonito is considered the king of fish (Dye
1983:251-2).
Blust (2002:130) notes that Tagalog is the only
non-Oceanic language known to have a presumptive cognate, atun
‘tunny fish’, albeit with an unexpected high vowel, and concludes that
‘*qatun probably was a lexical innovation in POc and that the
early Spanish explorers in the Pacific borrowed the term from an Oceanic
language (most likely in the western Solomon Islands) that preserved
final consonants, and then introduced it into the Philippines’.
Scomberomorus (Spanish mackerels) are moderate to large
predatory fishes occurring in schools in coastal waters. Larger ones are
caught by trolling near the surface in the vicinity of coral reefs,
rocky headlands and sunken shoals. Flesh is white, sweet, rather
boneless and highly esteemed. There are perhaps four species of
Scomberomorus. The largest, Scomberomorus commerson,
the narrow-barred Spanish mackerel, has been known to grow to over two
metres, although average size is considerably smaller (Munro 1967: p.200). Although the
following PMP reconstruction is glossed ‘Scomberomorus
commerson, Spanish mackerel’, Oceanic cognates do not support a
species-specific gloss for POc.
Scomber and Rastrelliger (mackerels) are small to
moderate pelagic fishes, typically under a metre in length, which
migrate in schools and comprise some of the more important food fishes
of the world. Munro (p. 197) reports that they inhabit shallow coastal
New Guinea waters where they are caught by seines or fixed traps.
Thunnus (bluefin and northern bluefin tuna, yellowfin tuna,
albacore, bigeye tuna) are heavy-bodied pelagic school fish. Most belong
to deeper waters, but some inhabit the sea over the continental shelf
and may be taken by trolling around reefs. Flesh, usually dark, is
excellent, one species dubbed ‘chicken of the sea’ (Munro 1967: p.200).
‘Xiphias gladius, swordfish; Makaira indicus,
black marlin’
François (2005:499) reconstructs PNCV *rowou ‘bonito,
Thunnus sp.’. Hooper has PNPn *kakasi ‘Thunnus
albacares, yellowfin tuna’, possibly related to the Marovo and
Roviana terms for bonito, makasi. The wahoo, Acanthocybium
solandri, is the sole member of its genus. It is solitary, pelagic,
has fine sweet flesh and is rated a splendid sporting fish. The only
reconstruction, PPn *paqala ‘Acanthocybium solandri,
wahoo’ is from Hooper (p.222). In Wayan and Tongan the term for a wahoo
is a taxon of PCP *walu.
58.
Marlins and sailfishes (Istiophoridae); swordfishes (Xiphiidae)⇫
The Istiophoridae are identified by an upper jaw in the form of a
long sword. They are big-game fish, large, fast and powerful, and
pelagic in open waters. Three marlins are recognised, Makaira
indicus (black marlin), Makaira mazara (blue marlin) and
Tetrapturus audax (striped marlin). The sailfish
(Istiophorus platypterus) has an extremely elevated dorsal fin
forming a sail-like structure which folds into a groove. The swordfish
(Xiphias gladius) is readily known by its particularly long
blade-like rostrum. The adult swordfish differs from the marlin and
sailfish in having no scales. The name for the sailfish in PMP and POc,
*saku-layaR, is a compound, derived from *saku
‘needlefish, garfish, long toms’ (§13) plus *layaR ‘sail’
(see vol.1,194). Referential
range in reflexes often includes swordfishes and marlin as well as
sailfishes, although the first two lack the sail-like dorsal fin.
‘swordfish’ (aʔu-lepe ‘sailfish’,
aʔu-kii ‘marlin’; for `†haʔu)
There is a second term which probably refered to a particular species
or subgroup of Istiophoridae in POc. In some languages of the Solomons
it has replaced *sakulayaR as the name for the sailfish. This
may be a reduplicated form of POc *piRu(q) ‘fan palm’ (vol.3,222), whose fronds resemble
the large dorsal fin of the sailfish.
59.
Flounders and soles: left-eye flounders (Bothidae), toothed flounders
(Paralichthyidae), right-eye flounders (Pleuronectidae), soles
(Soleidae)⇫
Flatfishes are poorly represented in tropical waters in comparison
with their abundance in cooler regions. Flounders, toothed flounders and
soles are bilaterally asymmetrical, adapted for life on the bottom where
they bury themselves in sand or mud. Most inhabit shallow coastal waters
and estuaries. Larger ones are good eating (Munro 1967: p.124). Flatheads have a
similar habit of burying themselves in sand, but lack the distinctive
oval shape of flounders and soles. Many contemporary languages have a
generic term for flatfishes. We have two reconstructions, both with
generalised gloss. In the next set both POc *alali and
*lalali are reflected.
Scorpionfishes and lionfishes were formerly included with stonefishes
as Scorpaenidae, but stonefishes have now been classified as a separate
family, Synanceiidae. The latter are shallowwater fishes, very sluggish,
spending most of their life concealed in mud or among rocks and coral.
Most have grotesquely misshapen heads and bodies covered with rough
warty skin. If trodden on, they can inject an extremely painful
neurotoxin which, in some cases, has proved fatal to man (Munro 1967: p.538). Reflexes of POc
*[ñ,n]opu(q) are numerous and widespread. Most Oceanic
languages have merged /ñ/ and /n/, so provide no evidence for choosing
between competing reconstructions, but Sudest reflects *ñ only,
while Titan, Loniu and Wayan reflect n only. Lynch (pers.
comm.) suggests the i of the Naman term (ni)niv might
be evidence supporting initial *ñ-. Although the referent is
consistent throughout almost all Western Oceanic languages, it has
apparently become a generic for fishes with poisonous spines, including
at least some scorpionfishes in Micronesia, Wayan Fijian and parts of
Polynesia.
Triggerfishes (Balistidae) are characterised by a football shape,
leathery skin, and small mouth with powerful jaws. They are feeble
swimmers, herbivorous, generally solitary in habit, seeking shelter
among coral heads and weeds. The flesh of many is poisonous, although
others are used for food (Munro 1967:
p.557). Closely related to Balistidae are the Monacanthidae (formerly
Aluteridae), leatherjackets and filefishes. They differ from triggerfish
in skin texture, leatherjackets having a leathery skin while that of
filefish is rough and velvety (Munro p.564). Four POc terms are
reconstructable, with *jumu the most likely candidate for a
generic term. *bubu and *[bʷaRu]bʷaRu may, like
*lio-lio, have had more specific reference. Variability of
gloss frequently indicates only variability of common names for the same
species. For instance, common names for Pseudobalistesfuscus include the
yellow-spotted triggerfish (Allen & Swainston) or brown triggerfish
(Kailola). Although juveniles have yellow lines and spots, adults have
overall dark coloration.
POc
*jumu
‘Balistidae, triggerfish and possibly Monacanthidae,
leatherjackets’34
Members of this family are bottom dwellers in shallow water often
around coral reefs. Normal scales have been replaced by bony plates
fused into a hard box-like carapace. Mouth, eyes and fins are the only
movable parts. All are extremely shy, feeble swimmers, but some are
beautifully coloured. Some are reputed to have toxic flesh (Munro 1967: p.571). The next
reconstruction is suspiciously similar to POc *[bʷaRu]bʷaRu
‘Balistes taxon, triggerfish’, on page 122, but this seems due
to chance, as the glosses clearly allow a separate reconstruction.
The next two reconstructions, *toqa and *moa, are
problematic. Lynch (pers. comm.) has suggested Proto Central Vanuatu
*mʷatoqu ‘boxfish, Ostracion’ (Paamese
(u)matou, Namakir mʷa-mʷatoq, Nguna mʷatou)
which has echoes of both. There is also the possibility of parallel
development, an outstanding characteristic of this fish being its
resemblance in taste and texture to chicken, PCP *moa or
*toa (Geraghty 1994:
p. 166).
63.
Puffers, toadfishes and blowfishes (Tetraodontidae); porcupinefishes and
balloonfishes (_Diodon_tidae)⇫
Puffers are sluggish fish which fill the belly with air when
disturbed, and then float to the surface. They are feeble swimmers.
Closely related are porcupine fish which are also selfinflating, but
distinguished by having moveable spines on head and body. Both are
bottom dwellers, and the flesh of both is toxic (Munro 1967: pp.545, 548). Although ACD glosses PMP *taRutum as
‘porcupinefish, puffer fish, Diodon sp.’, the WMP and CMP
reflexes listed refer only to porcupinefish, and the reference to
pufferfish is no doubt to the spiny puffer, an alternative name for
porcupinefish. In Ambon (CEMP) a reflex is the term for a durian and in
Ponape (Mic) a term for both the fish and a soursop (also a fruit with
prickles), while in languages of Borneo (Kelabit, Katingan) and the
Lesser Sundas (Manggarai, Lamaholot) reflexes mean ‘porcupine’. Both
emphasise the semantic connection with porcupinefish rather than the
smooth pufferfish. Blust (2002:130) considers that because
porcupines (the mammals) are not found in the Philippines where PMP was
presumably spoken, the term’s original reference was to
‘porcupinefish’.
PMP
*taRutu[m,ŋ]
‘porcupinefish, Diodon sp.’ (ACD includes
puffers)
There is a term from Roro (PT) with form apparently cognate with PCP
*jexejexe ‘Arothron’, but its gloss rules out an
upgrading to a POc reconstruction.
Flying gurnards are semipelagic, with lesser powers of flight than
the true flying fish. They are heavily armoured, with enormous wing-like
pectorals. Essentially bottom dwellers, they are capable of short clumsy
glide-like flights (Munro 1967:
p. 541). Geraghty (1994: p. 149) proposes PFij
*lulu, but no higher-level reconstruction has been made.
Remoras (Echeneis naucrates and Remora remora),
also known as suckerfish, have a modified adhesive disk on the upper
surface of the head with which they attach themselves to large floating
objects, frequently sharks. The Gela (SES) term for remoras is
rao-rago bagea, literally ‘joined to sharks’. I have no POc
reconstruction for remora. I noted in §4 that the Motu reflex of POc
*maŋewa ‘k.o. shark’ and the PCP reflex of *bakewa
‘shark (generic)’ denote the remora, not the shark. Hooper (1994: p.216) proposes PPn
*tali-tali-quli ‘Echeneis sp., remora, and Naucrates
ductor, pilot fish’ with suggested etymology *tali-tali
‘wait upon’ and *quli ‘to steer’.
A POc verb, *qunapi- ‘scale a fish’ can be reconstructed,
and it appears that a noun *qunapi ‘fishscales’ was derived by
back-formation in POc, existing as a doublet alongside *qunap.
Polynesian reflexes of the following reconstruction refer to turtle
shell as well as fish scale.
Many languages distinguish between pectoral (breast), dorsal (back),
caudal (tail) and ventral (abdominal) fins. Reconstructions have been
made for the first two. The reconstruction of the next etymon, POc
*banic ‘arm, hand, wing, fin (probably pectoral)’, entails some
minor formal problems. All cognates reflect initial *b- except
those in the Central Papuan languages Balawaia, Motu and Mekeo, which
reflect *p-. Blust (ACD) reconstructs PMP *pani(d,j)
with either *-d or *-j as final consonant. The only
Oceanic reflex with an etymological final consonant is Vitu
baniti-, pointing to POc *-t or *-c. The most
straightforward analysis is that PMP *panij became POc
*banic by regular sound change. The final consonants of Wampur
bani-t and Mapos Buang bani-s can be ignored, as they
reflect a probable construct suffix found on inalienably possessed nouns
in Huon Gulf languages. The POc meaning of this term had clearly been
extended beyond ‘wing’ to include the pectoral fins of fish, the wings
of birds and the arms of human beings.
POc *kaba (N) ‘wing’, (v) ‘flap wings’ (this volume, p.275)
may be reduplicated to refer to the action of flapping back and forth,
and in Polynesian languages this meaning is extended to include the
action of fins, flippers and wings together with the name of the
bodypart. Similarly, a number of Papuan Tip languages, Gumawana
pane-panena, Molima pape, Wedau papena and
Mekeo pa-pani use terms unrelated to *kaba-kaba to
refer to both a bird’s wing or its flapping action and for a fish
fin/turtle flipper.
Reflexes of POc *poto(k) ‘thorn’ (vol.3,125) have come to refer to
the spike or spines of a fish in Wayan Fijian and the barb of a stingray
in Polynesian languages.
In this chapter I have reconstructed around 145 Proto Oceanic names
for fish spread across approximately eighty families. All
reconstructions bar one are uninomials, the only binomial
reconstructable to POc level being *paRi-manuk ‘Aetobatus
narinari, spotted eagle ray’. Uninomials can refer to fish at the
family, genus or species level, and in the case of sharks
(*bakewa) and rays (*paRi), at the level of suborder.
In a number of cases I have been able to identify a reconstruction as
ageneric. Examples include *bakewa ‘sharks’, *paRi
‘ray’, *saku ‘needlefish’, *taRaqam ‘squirrelfish’,
*kanase ‘mullet spp.’, *tuna ‘fresh water eels’,
*qonos ‘Sphyraena, barracudas’. Generics may form the
headword in a binomial subsuming two or more species, or may simply be
used to include two or more subtaxa. Another kind of generic is that
illustrated by *bebek ‘generic for butterflyfish, coralfish’,
which is simply a lumped category with no sub-taxa. In some instances it
has been possible to link a reconstruction to a particular species.
However, for the majority of reconstructions it has only been possible
to allocate an identity at the level of genus or family. Undoubtedly,
POc fish nomenclature would have included scores of binomials, commonly
at the level of species. My inability to reconstruct them is due partly
to lack of detail in wordlists, but also to the likelihood of species
variability across the region together with the apparent tendency of
binomials to be local innovations. Most languages also have terms,
usually binomial, for categories that cut across Linnaean categories,
grouping fishes by functional criteria rather than by morphology or
behaviour. Satawal, for instance, has taxa which identify such
categories as flying fish, jumping fish, unpalatable fish, fish
prohibited for women and children to eat, fish prohibited for pregnant
and menstruating women, fish given preferentially to the chief, and fish
that follow driftwood (Akimichi & Sauchomal
1982:25-6). Such terms also tend to be local innovations. Andrew
Pawley has argued that Proto Oceanic probably had around 400 terms for
fish (this volume, ch.3). The substantial number of reconstructions that
exist for Proto Central Pacific and Proto Polynesian is largely due to
the work of Paul Geraghty and Robin Hooper, building on Biggs & Clark (1993). Although Western Oceanic
has far more languages than PCP, we have few wordlists from there which
provide good descriptions of fish nomenclature. With the addition of
more detailed wordlists from Western Oceanic languages, it should be
possible for researchers not only to reconstruct more terms, but to
further refine the glosses for those we have.
Hviding 2005 “Kiladi oro vivineidi ria tingitonga pa idere oro pa goana pa Marovo-Reef and rainforest: An environmental encyclopaedia of Marovo Lahgoon, Solomon Islands”
Ivens 1927 “Melanesians of the South-east Solomon Islands”
Kikusawa 1995 “Names of marine animals in the Wailevu communalect, Kadavu, Fiji: An interim report”
Kinch 1999b “Economics and environment in Island Melanesia: A general overview of resource use and livelihoods on Brooker Island in the Calvados Chain of the Louisiade Archipelago, Milne Bay Province, Papua New Guinea”
